Switching Power Supplies A to Z:This page intentionally left bank Preface xiAcknowledgements xviiChapter 1: The Principles of Switching Power Conversion 1Introduction3Overview and Basic Terminology 5Understanding the Inductor22Evolution of Switching Topologies 43Chapter 2: DC-DC Converter Design and Magnetics61DC Transfer Functions 64The DC Level and the “Swing” of the Inductor Current Waveform 65Defining the AC, DC, and Peak Currents 68Understanding the AC, DC and Peak Currents 70Defining the “Worst-case” Input Voltage72The Current Ripple Ratio ‘r’ 75Relating r to the Inductance 75The Optimum value of r 77Do We Mean Inductor? Or Inductance? 79How Inductance and Inductor Size Depend on Frequency 80How Inductance and Inductor Size Depend on Load Current 80How Vendors Specify the Current Rating of an Off-the-shelf Inductor andHow to Select It 81What Is the Inductor Current Rating We Need to Consider for a Given Application? 82The Spread and Tolerance of the Current Limit 85Worked Example (1)88Worked Examples (2, 3, and 4) 100Worked Example (5) — When Not to Increase the Number of Turns 106Worked Example (6) — Characterizing an Off-the-shelf Inductor in aSpecific Application 110Calculating the “Other” Worst-case Stresses 118Chapter 3: Off-line Converter Design and Magnetics 127Flyback Converter Magnetics 130Forward Converter Magnetics 152Chapter 4: The Topology FAQ 177Questions and Answers 179Chapter 5: Conduction and Switching Losses 203Switching a Resistive Load 206Switching an Inductive Load 210Switching Losses and Conduction Loss 213A Simplified Model of the Mosfet for Studying Inductive SwitchingLosses 215The Parasitic Capacitances Expressed in an Alternate System 217Gate Threshold Voltage 218The Turn-on Transition 218The Turn-off Transition 222Gate Charge Factors 224Worked Example 227Applying the Switching Loss Analysis to Switching Topologies 231Worst-case Input Voltage for Switching Losses 232How Switching Losses Vary with the Parasitic Capacitances 233Optimizing Driver Capability vis-à-vis Mosfet Characteristics 234Chapter 6: Printed Circuit Board Layout 237Introduction239Trace Section Analysis 239Some Points to Keep in Mind During Layout 240Thermal Management Concerns 247Chapter 7: Feedback Loop Analysis and Stability 249Transfer Functions, Time Constant and the Forcing Function 251Understanding ‘e’ and Plotting Curves on Log Scales 252Time Domain and Frequency Domain Analysis 255Complex Representation 256Nonrepetitive Stimuli 258The s-plane 258Laplace Transform 260Disturbances and the Role of Feedback262Transfer Function of the RC Filter 264The Integrator Op-amp (“pole-at-zero” filter) 267Mathematics in the Log Plane 269Transfer Function of the LC Filter 270Summary of Transfer Functions of Passive Filters 273Poles and Zeros 274Interaction of Poles and Zeros 276Closed and Open Loop Gain 277The Voltage Divider 280Pulse Width Modulator Transfer Function (gain) 281Voltage Feedforward282Power Stage Transfer Function 283Plant Transfer Functions of All the Topologies 284Boost Converter 286Feedback Stage Transfer Functions 289Closing the Loop 291Criteria for Loop Stability 293Plotting the Open-loop Gain and Phase with an Integrator 293Canceling the Double Pole of the LC Filter 295The ESR Zero 296Designing a Type 3 Op-amp Compensation Network 297Optimizing the Feedback Loop 301Input Ripple Rejection 304Load Transients 305Type 1 and Type 2 Compensations 306Transconductance Op-amp Compensation 308Simpler Transconductance Op-amp Compensation311Compensating with Current Mode Control 313Chapter 8: EMI from the Ground up—Maxwell to CISPR 323The Standards 326Maxwell to EMI 328Susceptibility/Immunity 333Some Cost-related Rules-of-thumb 335EMI for Subassemblies 335CISPR 22 for Telecom Ports — Proposed Changes 336Chapter 9: Measurements and Limits of Conducted EMI 339Differential Mode and Common Mode Noise 341How Conducted EMI Is Measured 344The Conducted Emission Limits 348Quasi-peak, Average, and Peak Measurements 351Chapter 10: Practical EMI Line Filters 355Safety Issues in EMI Filter Design 357Practical Line Filters 359Safety Restrictions on the Total Y-capacitance 367Equivalent DM and CM Circuits 368Some Notable Industry Experiences in EMI 371Chapter 11: DM and CM Noise in Switching Power Supplies 373Main Source of DM Noise 375The Main Source of CM Noise 377The Ground Choke 385Chapter 12: Fixing EMI across the Board 387The Role of the Transformer in EMI 389EMI from Diodes 394Beads, and an Industry Experience — the dV/dt of Schottky Diodes 397Basic Layout Guidelines 398Last-ditch Troubleshooting 399Are We Going to Fail the Radiation Test? 402Chapter 13: Input Capacitor and Stability Considerations in EMI Filters 403Is the DM Choke Saturating? 405Practical Line Filters in DC-DC Converter Modules 410Chapter 14: The Math behind the Electromagnetic Puzzle417Math Background — Fourier Series 419The Rectangular Wave 420Analysis of the Rectangular Wave 423The Trapezoid 424The EMI from a Trapezoid 426The Road to Cost-effective Filter Design 427Practical DM Filter Design 430Practical CM Filter Design 433viiiAppendix 1: Focusing on Some Real-world Issues 437Sounds Like Worst-case, But There’s Danger Lurking in the Middle 439Loop Design Sometimes Compensates for Lower-quality Switchers 440Re-inventing the Wheel as a Square 442The Mighty Zener 444Better Do the Math: Ignore Transfer Functions at Your Own Peril 447Aluminum Cap Multipliers — Why We Can’t Have Them and Eat Them Too 449Limit Your Peak Current, Not Your Reliability 452Reliability Is No Flash in the Pan 455The Incredible Shrinking Core459Plain Lucky We Don’t Live in a PSpice World! 462Why Does the Efficiency of My Flyback Nose-dive? 465It’s Not a Straight Line: Computing the Correct Drain to Source Resistance fromV-I Curves 468Don’t Have a Scope? Use a DMM, Dummy! 470Are We Making Light of Electronic Ballasts? 473More on Designing Reliable Electronic Ballasts 476The Organizational Side of Power Management: One Engineer’s Perspective 480Appendix 2: Reference Design Table 485
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