Preface.. xixCHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OFSYSTEMS ANALYSIS BASICS 11.1 Introduction.. 11.1.1 Multiple Access Techniques 31.1.2 Spread-Spectrum Techniques.. 71.1.3 IS-95 System Capacity Issues.. 101.1.4 Categories of Spread-Spectrum Systems 141.1.5 So, What Is CDMA? 181.1.6 Battle of Jamming Power Versus Processing Gain . 211.2 Review of Linear Systems Analysis Fundamentals.. 241.2.1 Linear Systems .. 241.2.2 Finite Impulse Response Filter . 331.2.3 Fourier Series . 36 1.2.3.1 Trigonometric and Exponential Fourier Series 361.2.3.2 Fourier Transform of a Periodic Function 371.3 Sampling Theorems .. 411.3.1 Sampling Theorem in the Frequency Domain.. 411.3.2 Sampling Theorem in the Time Domain . 431.3.3 Sampling Theorem for Bandpass Waveforms 471.3.4 Discrete Time Filtering . 491.4 Baseband Pulse Shaping for Bandlimited Transmission 521.4.1 Bandlimited Waveforms for Digital Applications 531.4.2 FIR Pulse Shaping in IS-95.. 581.5 Probability Functions.. 641.5.1 Probabilities 681.5.2 Probability Distribution Functions 701.5.3 Characteristic Function. 841.5.4 Moment Generating Function 871.5.5 Correlation Functions and Power Spectra 941.5.6 Central Limit Theorem. 1051.5.7 Chernoff Bounds.. 1071.5.8 The Narrowband Gaussian Random Process. 1141.5.8.1 Rayleigh Distributions . 1151.5.8.2 Rayleigh Fading 1181.5.8.3 Sinewave Plus Narrowband GaussianRandom Process . 1201.5.8.4 Modeling and Simulation of Bandpass Noise .. 1261.5.9 Chi-Squared Distributions 1411.5.9.1 Central Chi-Squared Distribution.. 1411.5.9.2 Noncentral Chi-Squared Distribution.. 1441.5.10 Lognormal Distributions .. 1501.5.10.1 Probability Density Function of a Lognormal RV. 1521.5.10.2 Moments of Lognormal RVs 153References . 154Appendix 1A Impulse Response of Ideal Filter #2 .. 158Appendix IB Integral of sine Function . 159Appendix 1C Impulse Response RC Filter . 160Appendix ID Probability for a Difference of Chi-Squared RVs. 161CHAPTER 2: MOBILE RADIOPROPAGATION CONSIDERATIONS 1652.1 Overview of Propagation Theory and Models .. 1652.1.1 Free-Space Propagation. 1652.1.2 Radio Horizon and Propagation Modes .. 167 2.1.2.1 Effect of the Atmosphere 1682.1.2.2 Characterization of Terrain and Its Effects 1712.1.2.3 Propagation Modes. 1752.1.3 LOS and Diffraction Propagation Modes .. 1772.1.3.1 Propagation in the LOS Region.. 1772.1.3.2 Diffraction Over Terrain and Buildings.. 1842.1.4 Empirical Propagation Formulas.. 1862.1.4.1 Hata and CCIR Formulas .. 1872.1.4.2 Walfisch-Ikegami Formula . 1902.1.5 Computer Propagation Loss Models.. 1992.1.5.1 The Longley-Rice and TIREM Models 1992.1.5.2 Comparison of WIM and Longley-Rice.. 2022.1.6 The Use of Propagation Models in Cellular Design.. 2052.1.6.1 Numerical Example of a Propagation Loss Contour.. 2072.1.6.2 Coverage Area Versus Maximum TolerablePropagation Loss. 2102.2 The Mobile Radio Environment 2152.2.1 Channel Models 2152.2.1.1 Delay-Spread Function.. 2162.2.1.2 Frequency Transfer Function .. 2212.2.1.3 Doppler-Spread Function 2242.2.1.4 Combined Delay Spread and Doppler Spread.. 2262.2.2 Fading and Fade Rate. 2292.2.2.1 Characterization of the Random Fading Channel 2292.2.2.2 Commonly Used Fading Terms .. 2342.2.2.3 Fade Rate and Vehicular Speed 2372.2.3 Lognormal Shadowing .. 247References.. 248Appendix 2A Details of Propagation Loss For Irregular Terrain.. 2512A.1 Angles of Elevation.. 2512A.2 LOS Path Loss. 2532A.3 Diffraction Loss . 254Appendix 2B Derivation of Fade Rate and Duration Formulas.. 256CHAPTER 3: BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEMS ENGINEERING 2653.1 Review of Telephone Traffic Theory . 2653.1.1 Telephone Connectivity. 2653.1.2 Traffic Load and Trunk Size .. 2663.1.3 Erlang B Statistics. 2673.2 The Cellular Concept.. 2743.2.1 Expansion of Mobile System CapacityThrough Frequency Reuse 2753.2.2 Cell Geometry. 2773.2.2.1 Cellular Coordinate Systems 2793.2.2.2 Clusters of Hexagonal Cells.. 2823.2.2.3 Locations of Interfering Cells. 2843.2.3 Selection of Cluster Size 2873.2.3.1 Interference Ratio Versus Cluster Size. 2883.2.3.2 Tradeoff of Interference Ratio andSpectral Efficiency. 2933.2.4 Cell Splitting and Base Station Power .. 2963.2.5 AMPS Parameters.. 2993.3 Coverage and Capacity in Cellular Systems.. 3023.3.1 Coverage Limits 3023.3.1.1 Generic Cellular System Link Budget.. 3033.3.1.2 Receiver Noise Calculation 3043.3.1.3 Maximum Tolerable Propagation Loss 3043.3.2 Coverage Versus Capacity .. 3053.3.2.1 Link Margin for the Coverage-Limited Case. 3063.3.2.2 Determination of Multicell Margin Requirements .. 3093.3.2.3 Reverse Link C/I and C/Nas Functions of System Loading. 3173.3.2.4 System Coverage Versus Traffic Load.. 321References . 328Appendix 3A Demonstration That the Form of PkSatifies the Equations 329Appendix 3B Moments for the Erlang B Distribution.. 330Appendix 3C Summary of Blocking Formulas . 331CHAPTER 4: OVERVIEW OF THE IS-95 STANDARD.. 3334.1 Coordination of Frequency and Time. 3354.1.1 Cellular Frequency Bands and Channels . 3364.1.2 System Time 3384.2 Des cription of Forward Link Operations . 3404.2.1 Forward Link CAI Summary 3404.2.2 Orthogonal Multiplexing Scheme. 3414.2.3 Forward Link Channels 343 4.2.3.1 Pilot Channel and Quadrature PN Codes.. 3444.2.3.2 Synchronization Channel 3474.2.3.3 Paging Channels 3504.2.3.4 Traffic Channels .. 3534.3 Des cription of Reverse Link Operations 3564.3.1 Reverse Link CAI Summary.. 3564.3.2 Multiple Access Scheme 3574.3.3 Reverse Link Channels.. 360 4.3.3.1 Access Channel. 3604.3.3.2 Reverse Traffic Channel.. 3624.3.4 Comparison of Forward and Reverse Links .. 3664.4 Special Features of the IS-95 System.. 3674.4.1 Power Control .. 3684.4.1.1 Open-Loop Power Control. 3694.4.1.2 Closed-Loop Power Control . 3714.4.1.3 Forward Link Power Control .. 373 4.4.2 Interleaving Techniques. 3744.4.3 Diversity and Handoff 388References 397Appendix 4A Theory of Interleaving . 3984A.1 Block Interleaving. 3984A.2 Convolutional Interleaving . 3994A.3 Comparison of Block and Convolutional Interleaving 4044A.4 Interleaver Design. 405Appendix 4B Hash Function Used in IS-95.. 4074B.1 Review of the Golden Ratio and Fibonacci Numbers 4094B.2 Hash Function Example 4114B.3 The IS-95 Hash Function.. 4144B.4 IS-95 Random Number Generator 418CHAPTER 5: WALSH FUNCTIONS AND CRC CODES 4255.1 Definition of the Walsh Functions .. 4265.2 Walsh Sequence Specifications (Instant Walsh Functions) 4305.3 Walsh Function Generation . 433 5.3.1 Walsh Function Generation Using Rademacher Functions.. 4385.3.2 Walsh Function Generation Using Hadamard Matrices . 4435.3.3 Finite Fields. 4475.3.4 Vector Spaces.. 4525.3.5 Walsh Function Generation Using Basis Vectors 4565.4 Orthogonal Walsh Functions for CDMA Applications .. 4615.4.1 Walsh Functions Used in the Forward Link .. 4615.4.2 Walsh Functions Used in the Reverse Link 4675.5 Walsh Function Decoding.. 4685.5.1 Correlation Decoding. 4695.5.2 Fast Walsh Transform Decoding.. 474 5.6 IS-95 Data Frames 4785.7 Linear Block Codes .. 480 5.7.1 Parity Check Matrix 4885.7.2 Concept of Syndrome and Error Detection.. 4945.7.3 Hamming Codes.. 5015.8 Cyclic Codes 5045.8.1 Systematic Cyclic Codes 5105.8.2 Encoders for Cyclic Codes. 5135.8.3 Syndrome Calculation by Shift Register Circuitsfor Error Detection 5215.9 Binary BCH Codes. 5275.10 Frame and Message Structure Quality Indicators. 531 5.10.1 CRC Computations for the Forward Link Channels 5335.10.2 CRC Computations for the Reverse Link Channels .. 538References . 540CHAPTER 6: THEORY AND APPLICATION OFPSEUDONOISE SEQUENCES.. 5436.1 Properties of Pseudonoise Sequences .. 5436.2 Extension Galois Fields and Primitive Polynomials 5466.2.1 Roots of Primitive Polynomialsand Maximal-Length Sequences .. 5536.2.2 Reciprocal Polynomialsand Tables of Irreducible Polynomials.. 5596.2.3 Mechanization of Linear Feedback Shift Registersfor Binary Irreducible Primitive Polynomials . 5626.2.4 State Vector Variations for PN Sequence Phase Shifts . 5726.3 Shift Register Implementation of PN Sequences .. 5766.3.1 Shift Register Generators With Special Loading Vectors 5786.3.2 Derivation of Sequences at the MSRG Outputs.. 5846.3.3 The Use of Masks To Select a Sequence Phase Shift.. 5896.3.4 Relationship Between the Mask and the Sequence Shiftfor Arbitrary Shift Register Loading 5936.3.4.1 Five-Stage MSRG Example.. 6056.3.4.2 PN Sequences Specified in IS-95.. 6116.3.4.3 Example Short PN Code Masks .. 6186.4 Autocorrelation and Cross-Correlation Propertiesof Binary Sequences .. 6246.4.1 Correlation Function for Real-Time Signals .. 6296.4.2 Partial Correlation Functions of PN Sequences .. 6356.4.3 Spectral Properties of Binary Sequence Waveforms .. 6396.5 Operations on Maximal-Length Sequences 6446.5.1 Orthogonalization 6446.5.2 Decimation of PN Sequences . 6496.6 Gold Codes 6546.6.1 The Cross-Correlation Problem.. 6566.6.2 Gold Codes and GPS Signal Structure.. 663References . 665Appendix 6A Inductive Proof of the Fact That g(x) = s*(z).. 666Appendix 6B Computer Programs .. 6686B.1 Program for Computing the Shift K .. 6686B.2 Program for Computing xKM.odulo f(x] .. 6696B.3 Program for Computing Long PN Code Transition Matrix. 670Appendix 6C Proof of Correlation Function Theorem 672 Appendix 6D Extension of Correlation Theorem to Bandlimited Pulses 673CHAPTER 7: MODULATION AND DEMODULATIONOF IS-95 SPREAD-SPECTRUM SIGNALS 6777.1 Likelihood Function.. 6777.1.1 Vector Representation of the Waveforms .. 6797.1.2 Optimal Receiver Principles for Gaussian Channels . 6877.1.3 Correlation Receivers . 6907.1.4 Matched Filter Receivers .. 6937.1.5 Performance Evaluations forM-ary Communications in AWGN.. 6997.1.6 Union Bound on the Probability of Error of M-aryCommunications Systems .. 7057.2 Modulation Schemes Used in the IS-95 System.. 7137.2.1 Forward Link.. 7147.2.1.1 Error Performance of Forward Link ChannelSymbols in AWGN .. 7207.2.1.2 Error Performance of Forward Link ChannelSymbols in Rayleigh Fading . 7277.2.2 Reverse Link. 7287.2.2.1 Noncoherent Signal Processing .. 7287.2.2.2 Envelope Detection Receiver for M-aryCommunications System 7367.2.2.3 Noncoherent Binary Orthogonal System.. 7407.2.2.4 Noncoherent Binary Orthogonal System inRayleigh Fading .. 7467.2.2.5 IS-95 CDMA Reverse Link M-ary OrthogonalModulation Scheme 7467.2.2.6 Optimal Demodulation for IS-95Reverse Link Waveforms 7507.2.2.7 Reverse Link Performance in Rayleigh Fading.. 7617.3 QPSK Versus BPSK 7637.3.1 Analysis of a BPSK CDMA System 7637.3.2 Analysis of a QPSK CDMA System .. 7697.3.3 Comparison of BPSK, QPSK Variances 7737.4 PN Code Acquisition and Tracking. 7747.4.1 Review of Correlation Operations .. 7777.4.2 Initial Sequence Phase Acquisition 7827.4.3 Code Tracking With a Delay-Lock Loop .. 7907.4.3.1 Full-Time Noncoherent DLL Tracking. 7947.4.3.2 Full-Time Coherent DLL Tracking .. 8007.4.4 TDL Tracking 8037.5 Shaped Versus Unshaped PN Sequences for Despreading 8067.5.1 Analysis of the Effect of Pulse Shape at the Receiver 8067.5.2 Simulated Comparison of the Energies Accumulated 810References . 814Appendix 7A The Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Procedure . 816Appendix 7B Average of BPSK Error Probability 822Appendix 7C Parameters of Integrated White Noise 823Appendix 7D Details of BPSK and QPSK Variances.. 827Appendix 7E Acquisition Decision Noise Terms. 834CHAPTER 8: CONVOLUTIONAL CODES AND THEIRUSE IN IS-95.. 8398.1 Introduction.. 8398.2 Convolutional Codes .. 847 8.2.1 Convolutional Encoders 8488.2.2 Encoder Connection Vector Representation 8518.2.3 Encoder Impulse Response Representation 8538.2.4 Polynomial Representation of the Encoder 8588.2.5 State Representation of the Encoder .. 8608.2.6 Tree Diagram for a Convolutional Encoder.. 8648.2.7 Trellis Diagram for a Convolutional Encoder.. 8668.3 Maximum Likelihood Decoding of Convolutional Codes 8718.3.1 Minimum Hamming Distance Decoding Rule . 8718.3.2 Viterbi Decoding Algorithm.. 8758.3.3 Distance Properties of Convolutional Codes 8828.3.4 Transfer Functions of Convolutional Codes 884 8.3.4.1 Systematic and Nonsystematic Convolutional Codes 8888.3.4.2 Catastrophic Error Propagationin Convolutional Codes .. 8888.4 Performance Bounds for Viterbi Decoding of Convolutional Codes 8908.4.1 Probability of Error Bounds for Hard Decision Decoding 8918.4.2 Bit-Error Probability for the BSC . 8958.4.3 Probability of Error Bounds for Soft-Decision Decoding 8968.4.4 Bit-Error Probability Bounds for Soft-DecisionViterbi Decoding 8988.4.5 Estimates of Coding Gains of Convolutional Codes. 9038.5 Convolutional Codes Used in the IS-95 CDMA System 9068.5.1 Performance of the Convolutional CodesUsed in the IS-95 System 9098.5.2 Coding Gains Versus Constraint Length. 9138.5.3 Quantization of the Received Signal. 916References 922Selected Bibliography 924Appendix 8A Proof of Q-Function Inequality .. 925CHAPTER 9: DIVERSITY TECHNIQUES ANDRAKE PROCESSING .. 9279.1 Introduction.. 9279.2 Diversity Techniques 9289.3 Diversity Selection and Combining Techniques.. 9309.3.1 Selection Diversity . 9309.3.1.1 Noncoherent M-ary Frequency-Shift Keying(NCMFSK). 9339.3.1.2 Noncoherent Binary Frequency-Shift Keying(NCBFSK) .. 9349.3.1.3 BPSK Modulation 9359.3.1.4 7T/4 DQPSK Modulation SystemWith Differential Detection . 9379.3.2 Equal Gain Diversity Combining. 9399.3.2.1 M-ary Noncoherent Orthogonal Modulation System 9399.3.2.2 MFSK With Rayleigh Fading.. 9469.3.2.3 BPSK Modulation Under L-fold DiversityWith EGG Reception. 9499.3.2.4 7T/4 DQPSK Modulation With DifferentialDetection Under L-fold DiversityWith EGG Reception .. 9619.3.2.5 Noncoherent Binary Orthogonal System andOptimal Diversity . 9619.3.3 Maximal Ratio Combining Diversity Reception . 9649.3.3.1 Optimality Proof of MRC Diversity Reception 9659.3.3.2 Example of MRC. 9699.4 The Rake Receiver Concept . 9729.4.1 Basics of Rake Receiver Design. 9749.4.2 The Essence of Price and Green's Rake Concept .. 9769.4.3 The Use of the Rake Concept in IS-95 . 981References . 982Selected Bibliography.. 984Appendix 9A Derivation of M-ary Orthogonal Diversity Performances.. 9879A.1 Selection Diversity .. 9879A.2 EGG Diversity Reception 988Appendix 9B Derivation of BPSK Diversity Performances .. 9929B.1 Selection Diversity .. 9929B.2 EGG Diversity Reception 993Appendix 9C Derivation of ?r/4 DQPSK Diversity Performances 9979C.1 Selection Diversity Performance.. 9979C.2 EGG Diversity Reception. 999CHAPTER 10: CDMA CELLULAR SYSTEM DESIGNAND ERLANG CAPACITY.. 100110.1 CDMA Cells 100110.1.1 Forward Link Cochannel Interference .. 100210.1.1.1 Same-Cell Interference 100210.1.1.2 Other-Cell Interference . 100510.1.2 Reverse Link Cochannel Interference .101210.1.2.1 Same-Cell Interference 101210.1.2.2 Other-Cell Interference . 101310.1.2.3 CDMA Reuse Parameters. 101710.1.2.4 CDMA Capacity Revisited . 101810.1.2.5 CDMA Cell Loading 102010.1.3 Cell Size 102210.1.3.1 Maximum Propagation Loss and the Cell Radius 102310.1.3.2 Forward Link Power Budget .. 103310.1.3.3 Reverse Link Power Budget. 103910.1.3.4 Link Balancing 104310.2 CDMA Link Reliability and Erlang Capacity 104810.2.1 Link Reliability and Link Margin. 104810.2.1.1 Link Margin for No Interference . 104910.2.1.2 Link Margin and Power Control.. 105110.2.1.3 Margin Required With Interference 105210.2.1.4 Margin for Diversity Reception and Soft Handoff. 105310.2.1.5 Reliable Signal Level 105610.2.2 Erlang Capacity 105710.2.2.1 Formulation of the Blocking Probability 105810.2.2.2 Mean and Variance of Z 106110.2.2.3 CDMA Blocking Probability Formulafor Gaussian Assumptions. 106410.2.2.4 CDMA Blocking Probability Formulafor Lognormal Assumptions . 107010.2.2.5 Comparison of CDMA Blocking Probabilities 107410.2.2.6 Erlang Capacity Comparisons of CDMA,FDMA, andTDMA. 107810.2.2.7 Number of Subscribers During the Busy Hour.108010.2.3 CDMA Area Coverage Analysis. 108110.2.3.1 Required Received Signal Level as a Functionof Loading.. 108210.2.3.2 Cell Radius as a Function of Cell Loading.. 108910.2.3.3 Base Station Density 1094References . 1103Appendix 10A Analysis of Second-Order Reuse Fraction ..1107CHAPTER 11: CDMA OPTIMIZATION ISSUES 111111.1 Selection of Pilot PN Code Offsets.. 111211.1.1 The Role of PN Offsets in System Operation 111311.1.2 Pilot Offset Search Parameters .1116 11.1.2.1 Effect of Multipath on Search Window.112011.1.2.2 Bounds on Relative Delays ..112111.1.2.3 IS-95 Search Window Parameters. 112211.1.3 Selection of Offset Spacing.112411.2 Optimal Allocation of CDMA Forward Link Power. 112911.2.1 Forward Link Channel SNR Requirements .113011.2.1.1 Pilot Channel . 113011.2.1.2 Sync Channel. 113111.2.1.3 Paging Channels.113111.2.1.4 Traffic Channels 113211.2.1.5 Interference and Noise Terms.113211.2.2 Total Forward Link Power 113311.2.2.1 Forward Link Power Control Factor . 113411.2.2.2 Net Losses on the Forward Link..113611.2.3 Solution for Forward Link Powers.. 113711.2.3.1 Allocated Channel Power as a Fraction ofTotal Power .. 114511.2.3.2 Parametric Variations in the Power Solutions114711.3 Selection of Forward Link Fade Margins . 115111.3.1 Limits on Receiver Margin.115311.3.1.1 Receiver and Transmitter Powers UnderNo Interference.. 115411.3.1.2 Receiver and Transmitter Powers WhenThere Is Interference. 115611.3.2 Numerical Examples of CDMA Margin . 115811.3.2.1 Receiver Margin Versus Transmitter Margin 115911.3.2.2 Receiver Margin Versus Total Forward Link Power 116211.4 Forward and Reverse Link Capacity Balancing .116211.4.1 Forward Link Capacity 116411.4.1.1 Asymptotic Forward Link Capacity.. 116411.4.1.2 Power-Limited Forward Link Capacity 116711.4.2 Capacity Balancing .117011.5 Implementation of Forward Link Dynamic Power Allocation.1178References . 1186About the Authors .1187Index..1189
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