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Contents
PREFACE
GLOSSARY OF NOTATIONS
1
VIDEO FORMATION, PERCEPTION,
AND REPRESENTATION
1.1
Color Perception and Specification 2
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.1.5
Light and Color, 2
Human Perception of Color, 3
The Trichromatic Theory of Color Mixture, 4
Color Specification by Tristimulus Values, 5
Color Specification by Luminance and Chrominance
Attributes, 6
Principles of Color Video Imaging, 7
Video Cameras, 8
Video Display, 10
Composite versus Component Video, 11
Gamma Correction, 11
xxi
xxv
1
1.2
Video Capture and Display 7
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
1.2.5
1.3
Analog Video Raster 12
1.3.1 Progressive and Interlaced Scan, 12
1.3.2 Characterization of a Video Raster, 14
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Contents
1.4
Analog Color Television Systems 16
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.4.4
1.4.5
Spatial and Temporal Resolution, 16
Color Coordinate, 17
Signal Bandwidth, 19
Multiplexing of Luminance, Chrominance, and Audio, 19
Analog Video Recording, 21
Notation, 22
ITU-R BT.601 Digital Video, 23
Other Digital Video Formats and Applications, 26
Digital Video Recording, 28
Video Quality Measure, 28
1.5
Digital Video 22
1.5.1
1.5.2
1.5.3
1.5.4
1.5.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
2
Summary 30
Problems 31
Bibliography 32
FOURIER ANALYSIS OF VIDEO SIGNALS AND
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE HUMAN
VISUAL SYSTEM
2.1
2.2
2.3
Multidimensional Continuous-Space Signals and Systems
Multidimensional Discrete-Space Signals and Systems 36
Frequency Domain Characterization of Video Signals 38
2.3.1 Spatial and Temporal Frequencies, 38
2.3.2 Temporal Frequencies Caused by Linear Motion, 40
33
33
2.4
Frequency Response of the Human Visual System 42
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.4.4
Temporal Frequency Response and Flicker Perception, 43
Spatial Frequency Response, 45
Spatiotemporal Frequency Response, 46
Smooth Pursuit Eye Movement, 48
2.5
2.6
2.7
3
Summary 50
Problems 51
Bibliography 52
53
VIDEO SAMPLING
3.1
3.2
Basics of the Lattice Theory 54
Sampling over Lattices 59
3.2.1 Sampling Process and Sampled-Space Fourier Transform, 60
3.2.2 The Generalized Nyquist Sampling Theorem , 61
3.2.3 Sampling Efficiency, 63
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3.2.4 Implementation of the Prefilter and Reconstruction Filter, 65
3.2.5 Relation between Fourier Transforms over Continuous, Discrete,
and Sampled Spaces, 66
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3.3
Sampling of Video Signals 67
3.3.1 Required Sampling Rates, 67
3.3.2 Sampling Video in Two Dimensions: Progressive versus
Interlaced Scans, 69
3.3.3 Sampling a Raster Scan: BT.601 Format Revisited, 71
3.3.4 Sampling Video in Three Dimensions, 72
3.3.5 Spatial and Temporal Aliasing, 73
3.4
Filtering Operations in Cameras and Display Devices 76
3.4.1 Camera Apertures, 76
3.4.2 Display Apertures, 79
3.5
3.6
3.7
4
Summary 80
Problems 80
Bibliography 83
84
VIDEO SAMPLING RATE CONVERSION
4.1
Conversion of Signals Sampled on Different Lattices 84
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4
Up-Conversion, 85
Down-Conversion, 87
Conversion between Arbitrary Lattices, 89
Filter Implementation and Design, and Other Interpolation
Approaches, 91
4.2
Sampling Rate Conversion of Video Signals 92
4.2.1 Deinterlacing, 93
4.2.2 Conversion between PAL and NTSC Signals, 98
4.2.3 Motion-Adaptive Interpolation, 104
4.3
4.4
4.5
5
Summary 105
Problems 106
Bibliography 109
111
VIDEO MODELING
5.1
Camera Model 112
5.1.1 Pinhole Model, 112
5.1.2 CAHV Model, 114
5.1.3 Camera Motions, 116
5.2
Illumination Model
116
5.2.1 Diffuse and Specular Reflection, 116
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5.2.2 Radiance Distribution under Differing Illumination and Reflection
Conditions, 117
5.2.3 Changes in the Image Function Due to Object Motion, 119
Contents
5.3
Object Model
120
5.3.1 Shape Model, 121
5.3.2 Motion Model, 122
5.4
5.5
Scene Model 125
Two-Dimensional Motion Models 128
5.5.1 Definition and Notation, 128
5.5.2 Two-Dimensional Motion Models Corresponding to Typical Camera
Motions, 130
5.5.3 Two-Dimensional Motion Corresponding to Three-Dimensional Rigid
Motion, 133
5.5.4 Approximations of Projective Mapping, 136
5.6
5.7
5.8
6
Summary 137
Problems 138
Bibliography 139
141
TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTION ESTIMATION
6.1
Optical Flow 142
6.1.1 Two-Dimensional Motion versus Optical Flow, 142
6.1.2 Optical Flow Equation and Ambiguity in Motion Estimation, 143
6.2
General Methodologies 145
6.2.1 Motion Representation, 146
6.2.2 Motion Estimation Criteria, 147
6.2.3 Optimization Methods, 151
6.3
Pixel-Based Motion Estimation 152
6.3.1 Regularization Using the Motion Smoothness Constraint, 153
6.3.2 Using a Multipoint Neighborhood, 153
6.3.3 Pel-Recursive Methods, 154
6.4
Block-Matching Algorithm
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.4.4
6.4.5
6.4.6
154
The Exhaustive Block-Matching Algorithm, 155
Fractional Accuracy Search, 157
Fast Algorithms, 159
Imposing Motion Smoothness Constraints, 161
Phase Correlation Method, 162
Binary Feature Matching, 163
6.5
Deformable Block-Matching Algorithms 165
6.5.1 Node-Based Motion Representation, 166
6.5.2 Motion Estimation Using the Node-Based Model, 167
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6.6
Mesh-Based Motion Estimation 169
6.6.1 Mesh-Based Motion Representation, 171
6.6.2 Motion Estimation Using the Mesh-Based Model, 173
6.7
Global Motion Estimation 177
6.7.1 Robust Estimators, 177
6.7.2 Direct Estimation, 178
6.7.3 Indirect Estimation, 178
6.8
Region-Based Motion Estimation 179
6.8.1 Motion-Based Region Segmentation, 180
6.8.2 Joint Region Segmentation and Motion Estimation, 181
6.9
Multiresolution Motion Estimation 182
6.9.1 General Formulation, 182
6.9.2 Hierarchical Block Matching Algorithm, 184
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13
7
Application of Motion Estimation in Video Coding 187
Summary 188
Problems
189
Bibliography 191
194
THREE-DIMENSIONAL MOTION ESTIMATION
7.1
Feature-Based Motion Estimation 195
7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.1.4
Objects of Known Shape under Orthographic Projection, 195
Objects of Known Shape under Perspective Projection, 196
Planar Objects, 197
Objects of Unknown Shape Using the Epipolar Line, 198
Image Signal Models and Motion, 204
Objects of Known Shape, 206
Planar Objects, 207
Robust Estimation, 209
7.2
Direct Motion Estimation 203
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.2.4
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
8
Iterative Motion Estimation 212
Summary 213
Problems 214
Bibliography 215
217
FOUNDATIONS OF VIDEO CODING
8.1
Overview of Coding Systems 218
8.1.1 General Framework, 218
8.1.2 Categorization of Video Coding Schemes, 219
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